Earthquake Disaster Simulation of Civil Infrastructures: From Tall Buildings to Urban Areas, Springer, 2017

About this book

Tall Building

Urban Area

Based on more than 12 years of systematic investigation on earthquake disaster simulation of civil infrastructures, this book covers the major research outcomes including a number of novel computational models, high performance computing methods and realistic visualization techniques for tall buildings and urban areas, with particular emphasize on collapse prevention and mitigation in extreme earthquakes, earthquake loss evaluation and seismic resilience. Typical engineering applications to several tallest buildings in the world (e.g., the 632 m tall Shanghai Tower and the 528 m tall Z15 Tower) and selected large cities in China (the Beijing Central Business District, Xi'an City, Taiyuan City and Tangshan City) are also introduced to demonstrate the advantages of the proposed computational models and techniques.

The high-fidelity computational model developed in this book has proven to be the only feasible option to date for earthquake-induced collapse simulation of supertall buildings that are higher than 500 m. More importantly, the proposed collapse simulation technique has already been successfully used in the design of some real-world supertall buildings, with significant savings of tens of thousands of tons of concrete and steel, whilst achieving a better seismic performance and safety.

The proposed novel solution for earthquake disaster simulation of urban areas using nonlinear multiple degree-of-freedom (MDOF) model and time-history analysis delivers several unique advantages: (1) true representation of the characteristic features of individual buildings and ground motions; (2) realistic visualization of earthquake scenarios, particularly dynamic shaking of buildings during earthquakes; (3) detailed prediction of seismic response and losses on each story of every building at any time period. The proposed earthquake disaster simulation technique has been successfully implemented in the seismic performance assessments and earthquake loss predictions of several central cities in China. The outcomes of the simulation as well as the feedback from the end users are encouraging, particularly for the government officials and/or administration department personnel with limited professional knowledge of earthquake engineering.

The book offers readers a systematic solution to earthquake disaster simulation of civil infrastructures. The application outcomes demonstrate a promising future of the proposed advanced techniques. The book provides a long-awaited guide for academics and graduate students involving in earthquake engineering research and teaching activities. It can also be used by structural engineers for seismic design of supertall buildings.

Preface

Earthquake is a natural disaster that severely threatens the safety of people. In consequence, increasing the seismic resistance and resilience of civil infrastructures and cities through in-depth research of earthquake engineering has significant value for safeguarding life and property. Note that since the devastating Tangshan Earthquake in 1976, no severe earthquake has taken place for more than 40 years in the eastern and central cities of China. Experiences gained from previous earthquakes obviously cannot satisfy the latest development of structures and urbanizations. Considering the capacity limitations of physical testing facilities, an accurate, efficient and realistic numerical simulation of seismic damage to structures and cities is critically needed for developing rational and practical engineering solutions and mitigation strategies to reduce the impacts of earthquakes.

The authors of this monograph have systematically studied the earthquake disaster simulation of civil infrastructures for more than 12 years. The outcomes of their work are summarized in this monograph, covering the novel computational models, high performance computing methods and realistic visualization of tall buildings and urban areas, with particular emphasize on collapse prevention and mitigation in extreme earthquakes, earthquake loss evaluation and seismic resilience. Typical engineering applications to several tallest buildings in the world and selected large cities in China are also introduced to demonstrate the advantages of the proposed computational models and techniques. It should be recognized that extensive studies related to earthquake disaster simulation have been conducted by many other researchers. This monograph is intended to present the work completed by the authors and their co-workers only.

The contents covered in this monograph include the research outcomes of many important research projects sponsored by various research agencies, including: the Excellent Young Scientist Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (No. 51222804), the Key Research Plan of NSFC (No. 90815025, 91315301), the NSFC-NSF US Major International (Regional) Joint Research Project (No. 51261120377), the General Projects of NSFC (No. 51178249, 51378299, 51578320), the National Key Technology R&D Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) of China (No. 2006BAJ03A02, 2009BAJ28B01, 2012BAJ07B012, 2013BAJ08B02, 2014BAL05B04, 2015BAK17B03, 2015BAK14B02), the Beijing Natural Science Foundation (No. 8142024), the Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (No. NCET-10-0528), the Fok Ying Dong Education Foundation (No. 131071), the Tsinghua University Initiative Scientific Research Program (No. 2010THZ02-1) and the National Non-Profit Institute Research Grant of IGP-CEA (No. DQJB14C01).

The work presented in this monograph is completed by the authors and their co-workers, including: Professors Lieping Ye, Aizhu Ren, Song Cen and Peng Pan of Tsinghua University, Professor Muneo Hori of the University of Tokyo, Professor Kincho H. Law of Stanford University, Dr. Xuchuan Lin of the Institute of Engineering Mechanics of China Earthquake Administration, Professors Wuhui Qi, Weibiao Yang and Wei Zhen of the Beijing Institute of Architectural Design, Dr. Yuli Huang of Arup Ltd., Professor Halil Sezen of the Ohio State University, Professor Tony Yang of the University of British Columbia, Professor Cheng Yu of the University of North Texas. Many graduate students of Tsinghua University also contributed extensively to the development, analysis and simulation work presented in this monograph. They include doctoral graduates: Drs Xunliu Wang, Zhiwei Miao, Qianli Ma, Yi Li, Zhe Qu, Zhen Xu, Xiao Lu, Wei Shi, Chen Xiong and Linlin Xie; master graduates: Wankai Zhang, Bo Han, Mengke Li, Bin Liu, Lisha Wang; and current graduate students: Xiang Zeng, Kaiqi Lin, Yuan Tian, Zhebiao Yang, Qingle Cheng, Donglian Gu. In addition, Professors Jiaru Qian, Jingbo Liu, Linhai Han, Zuozhou Zhao, Xiaodong Ji and Peng Feng of Tsinghua University also provided many valuable advices to this work. The China Academy of Building Research, the Beijing Institute of Architectural Design, the Institute of Engineering Mechanics, the Institute of Geophysics of China Earthquake Administration, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology and the THUPDI Ltd also provided generous support to this research.

Support provided by the Key Laboratory of Civil Engineering Safety and Durability of Ministry of Education of China and the Laboratory of the Mechanical Computing and Simulation of Tsinghua University for undertaking extensive computer simulations and experimental studies is greatly acknowledged.

During the writing up stage, Drs. Xiao Lu, Zhen Xu, Linlin Xie, Chen Xiong, Mr. Kaiqi Lin, Xiang Zeng, Qingle Cheng, and Ms. Yaning Zhu helped to finalize all the figures and proofread the entire manuscript. Their contributions are also gratefully acknowledged.

Given a significant amount of research being conducted in the related areas, the work presented in this monograph is just a small contribution. There must be some limitations and errors in the contents of this monograph. Any comments and suggestions from the readers are warmly welcomed.

Authors

September, 2016

Tsinghua Campus, Beijing, China

3.2 GPU-based high performance matrix solvers for OpenSees

LIST OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Research background

1.2 Significance and implication of earthquake disaster simulation of civil infrastructures

1.3 Research framework and contents

Chapter 2 High-fidelity computational models for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Fiber-beam element model

2.3 Multi-layer shell model

2.4 Hysteretic hinge model

2.5 Multi-scale modeling

2.6 Element deactivation and collapse simulation

2.7 Summary

Chapter 3 High performance computing and visualization for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings

3.1 Introduction

3.3 Physics engine-based high performance visualization

3.4 Summary

Chapter 4 Earthquake disaster simulation of typical supertall buildings

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Earthquake disaster simulation of the Shanghai Tower

4.3 Earthquake disaster simulation of the Z15 Tower

4.4 Summary

Chapter 5 Simplified models for earthquake disaster simulation of supertall buildings

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The flexural-shear model

5.3 The fishbone model

5.4 Summary

Chapter 6 Engineering application of earthquake disaster simulation of supertall buildings

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Ground motion intensity measure (IM) for supertall buildings

6.3 Minimum base shear force for supertall buildings

6.4 Optimal design of the Z15 Tower based on collapse analysis

6.5 Summary

Chapter 7 Comparison of seismic design and performance of tall buildings based on Chinese and US design codes

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Comparison of the seismic designs of typical tall buildings based on the Chinese and US design codes

7.3 Comparison of the structural performance of tall buildings designed based on the US and Chinese codes

7.4 Comparison of the seismic resilience of tall buildings designed based on the US and Chinese codes

7.5. Summary

Chapter 8 Nonlinear MDOF models for earthquake disaster simulation of urban buildings

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Nonlinear MDOF shear model of multi-story buildings

8.3 Nonlinear MDOF flexural-shear model of tall buildings

8.4 Summary

Chapter 9 Visualization for earthquake disaster simulation of urban buildings

9.1 Introduction

9.2 2.5D model for visualization of urban building seismic simulation

9.3 3D-GIS model for visualization of urban building seismic simulation

9.4 Physics engine-based collapse simulation of urban buildings

9.5 Summary

Chapter 10 High performance computing for earthquake disaster simulation of urban buildings

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Coarse-grain CPU/GPU collaborative parallel computing

10.3 Seismic simulation of urban buildings using distributed computing and multi-fidelity models

10.4 Summary

Chapter 11 Earthquake disaster simulation of typical urban areas

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Earthquake disaster simulation of Ludian Earthquake

11.3 Earthquake disaster simulation of Beijing CBD

11.4 Earthquake disaster simulation of a medium-sized city in China

11.5 Earthquake disaster simulation of Xi’an, Taiyuan and Tangshan Cities in China

11.6 Summary

Chapter 12 Earthquake loss prediction for typical urban areas

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Earthquake loss prediction for urban areas based on FEMA P-58 method

12.3 Secondary disaster simulation of falling debris and site selection of emergence shelters

12.4 Summary

Chapter 13 Conclusions

13.1 Major achievements and contributions

13.2 A Future perspective

1 Introduction

1.1 Research background

China, being located in an earthquake-prone region, is one of the countries in the world that suffer the most from earthquake disasters (Chen et al., 1999; Jiang, 2005). Spanning over a long history, China has experienced a significant number of devastating earthquakes, resulting in enormous casualties and property losses. Past earthquake events have repeatedly proven that damage to civil infrastructures is the major contributor to earthquake disasters. Building collapses in particular are responsible for a large percentage of deaths and property losses in earthquakes. Therefore, one of the important research pursuits is to develop rational and practical engineering solutions and mitigation strategies to reduce the impacts of earthquakes, through an in-depth understanding of the mechanisms of earthquake damage to civil infrastructures.

Much progress has been made in earthquake engineering research and applications following more than 100 years of scientific endeavour. Recent earthquakes have signified that if the ground motion does not overly exceed the maximum considered intensity, building collapses and casualties can be largely prevented should the structures be engineered in strict accordance with the seismic design code specifications. Such a finding marks a notable achievement and contribution to the entire earthquake engineering community. Despite these remarkable research and application efforts, a range of new challenges are yet to be faced due to rapid societal growth and increasing complexities of earthquakes. To address these challenges, further research efforts must be made in the following areas:

(1) Seismic design of new types of structures

Many international seismic design codes and specifications are largely based on the lessons learnt from historic earthquakes. Given rapid development of civil engineering technology and randomness of earthquakes, many new types of structures are being constructed without having gathered adequate earthquake experience data. For instance, in recent years, there is a boom of supertall building construction worldwide (http://ctbuh.org/). However, most of these supertall buildings have not experienced any major earthquake. The actual safety and performance of the supertall buildings of 400 m to 600 m tall and beyond still remain unknown when they are subjected to severe earthquakes. An in-depth study is indeed urgently needed to ensure safety and robustness of the new types of structural systems.

(2) Disaster prevention and mitigation of urban areas

Advances in earthquake engineering for new structures, whilst contributing to the improvement of the community safety, are still limited to comprehensively solve earthquake disaster prevention and mitigation problems in urban areas. Using an analogous statement of “Rome wasn't built in a day”, every city has a long history in which the buildings were constructed over different periods. Many outdated buildings lack adequate seismic resistance, a problem that is particularly critical for countries like China. The underlying reason lies in the fact that a large percentage of the urban buildings were constructed well before the modern earthquake engineering design methodology was widely implemented. This situation has become the “Achilles' heel” of contemporary Chinese cities. When a powerful earthquake struck an urban area of China with a dense population, it often caused massive losses to human life and property. Although the economic and social consequences can be mitigated by rebuilding or strengthening all the non-seismic resistant buildings, this may not be easily accomplished in the near future due to a substantial financial burden imposed. Thus, an accurate prediction of the potential seismic damage to urban areas is of practical importance for effective pre-earthquake planning and post-earthquake emergency management.

(3) Earthquakes beyond the range of maximum considered earthquake

Although the understanding of earthquake risks in China has been increasingly improved owing to the latest revisions of the earthquake hazard zoning map of China, the probability of occurrence of extreme earthquakes that beyond the maximum considered earthquake must not be considered lightly in structural design due to the complicated nature of earthquakes. Critically important buildings and civil infrastructures are so functional important which are deemed “too big to fail”. How to enhance the collapse resistance of such structures subjected to extreme earthquakes remains a significant challenge when aiming for the right balance between the safety and construction costs. This requires damage control of the entire structural system in the collapse prevention design against extreme earthquakes, instead of merely designing for strength or ductility of individual components as commonly suggested by most existing design codes (Ye et al., 2010; Tang et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2010).

(4) Resilience of buildings and communities

In traditional seismic design, great emphasis has been placed on safety and collapse prevention of structures. However, lessons learnt from recent earthquakes reveal that: in addition to the damage control of structural components, loss control of non-structural components and contents in the buildings, as well as post-earthquake recovery of buildings and communities are also vastly important for disaster risk reduction. Accordingly, the seismic design concept of “resilience” has drawn increasing attention worldwide (Bruneau et al., 2003; UNDP, 2015; Cimellaro, 2016). Much in-depth work is thus required to achieve disaster-resilient buildings and communities.

1.2 Significance and implication of earthquake disaster simulation of civil infrastructures

Given the large dimensions and complicated configurations of civil infrastructures, and their likelihood to be destroyed by sudden, devastating and regional earthquakes, investigation and evaluation of earthquake damage through costly experiments face many challenges. For seismic damage assessment of an urban area, in particular, computer-based simulation has become the most feasible and efficient methodology for scientific research and engineering application.

Computer simulation of earthquake disasters covers the follow three components:

(1) Mathematical models that can reproduce the behavior of structures;

(2) Numerical methods that can provide solutions to a system of mathematical equations;

(3) Computer hardware for implementing numerical simulation.

In light of the above, earthquake disaster simulation falls within a typical multi-disciplinary field of research. From the structural engineering viewpoint, the major task is to continuously develop accurate and reliable mathematical models to mimic the actual behavior of real structures. In addition to this, efficient computer hardware and numerical solvers are also critical issues to be addressed due to excessive computational workload required for an earthquake disaster simulation of a complicated structure or a large urban area.

Numerical simulation using 3D solid elements has many advantages in reproducing the true behavior of 3D structural components. However, their application to real-world structures is both costly and impractical. For example, Yamashita et al. (2011) modeled a 129.7 m high regularly-shaped steel frame with 16 million solid elements. Such a simulation is a huge challenge even for the fastest computer in the world. For this reason, efficient computational models and numerical solvers remain attractive development goals, so does the high performance/low cost hardware platform.

It is worth noting that there always exists a major conflict between scientific research/engineering demand and the capabilities and limitations of the physical/experimental and virtual/numerical simulations. Comparing to the slow-progression of the experimental capacities, the computing power of numerical simulation has increased rapidly in the past several decades. The list of top 500 fastest computers is updating monthly, and today’s desktop computers are almost as fast as the world’s fastest super-computer some 15 years ago. Thus, current earthquake engineering research can largely benefit from full utilization of the capabilities of modern computers.

1.3 Research framework and contents

In view of the four critical challenges outlined in Section 1.1, this monograph thus focuses on earthquake disaster simulation of tall/supertall buildings and urban areas, with particular emphasize on collapse prevention and mitigation in extreme earthquakes, earthquake loss evaluation and seismic resilience. The research framework and contents of this monograph are as follows:

Earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings is covered in Chapters 2 to 7.

Given large-scale and complicated structural systems, a computational model with balanced accuracy and efficiency is critical for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings. In consequence, Chapter 2 proposes a suite of high-fidelity computational models for tall building simulation (covering fiber-beam element model, multi-layer shell element model, and so forth), followed by model validation against published experimental results.

The high-fidelity computational models introduced in Chapter 2 bring new challenges to effective implementation of computer simulation and visualization. Consequently, Chapter 3 proposes graphics processing unite (GPU)-based high performance matrix solvers in conjunction with physics engine-based high performance visualization technique, with which the simulation and visualization can be greatly accelerated.

Using the above techniques, earthquake-induced collapse simulation of two real-world landmark supertall buildings, i.e., the Shanghai Tower (H = 632 m) and the Z15 Tower (H = 528 m), is presented in Chapter 4. In-depth discussions are also provided with respect to the collapse process and failure mechanisms of these supertall buildings.

Despite the improved accuracy of the high-fidelity computational models, excessive computational workload limits their application at the preliminary design phase. Therefore, simplified models are proposed in Chapter 5 which can greatly reduce the modeling and computational cost without compromising required accuracy. The simplified models can be used for preliminary design and selection of the most appropriate structural scheme for a given building.

Based on the high-fidelity computational models and simplified models, Chapter 6 discusses, in some detail, several issues pertaining to supertall buildings that have received much attention from wide engineering community. These issues include but not limited to: ground motion intensity measure and minimum based shear force for supertall buildings, and optimal design of an actual supertall building based on collapse analysis.

Discussions on tall buildings presented in Chapters 2 to 6 are primarily focused on the overall structural performance. Given increased demand on seismically resilient tall buildings, Chapter 7 details the structural performance and seismic resilience of typical tall buildings designed based on the Chinese and US codes, using the computational models developed in previous chapters and the new generation performance-based design method.

Earthquake disaster simulation of urban areas is presented in Chapters 8 to 12 of this monograph.

To overcome the limitations of existing urban building seismic simulations, Chapter 8 proposes nonlinear multiple degree-of-freedom (MDOF) models in conjunction with time-history analysis to predict seismic damage to buildings in large urban areas. The computational models and the corresponding parameter determination methods are proposed for multi-story masonry buildings, reinforced concrete frames and tall buildings.

A realistic visualization is highly important for users of urban building seismic simulation who are not professional civil engineers. With this in mind, 2.5D and 3D visualization models are proposed in Chapter 9 to enhance visualization capabilities of urban building seismic simulation. In addition, collapse simulation of urban buildings is achieved through physics engines.

Earthquake disaster simulation of an urban area based on nonlinear MDOF models or high-fidelity computational models brings more challenges to computational workload. A coarse-grain CPU/GPU collaborative parallel computing and a distributed computing framework for multi-fidelity models are therefore proposed in Chapter 10 which impressively accelerated the earthquake disaster simulation of an urban area.

Using the method proposed in Chapters 8, 9 and 10, Chapter 11 presents six typical examples of urban building seismic simulation. The number of buildings simulated is up to hundreds of thousands, demonstrating the advantages and applicability of the proposed method.

Whilst the urban building seismic simulation technique developed in Chapters 8 to 11 focuses mainly on the structural damage, Chapter 12 makes use of detailed structural responses to predict the earthquake loss of an urban area based on the new generation performance-based design method. A secondary disaster simulation of falling debris of buildings is also presented which in turn helps to select a rational and safer site for emergency shelter construction. The outcome of this simulation is expected to provide a useful reference for improving community resilience.

Last but not least, Chapter 13 summarizes the major achievements and contributions reported in this monograph, based on which the future research directions are given.

A schematic of the contents and interrelationships of various chapters are illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Contents and interrelationships of all chapters

Chapter 2 High-fidelity computational models for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings

Example page of Chapter 2 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 3 High performance computing and visualization for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings

Example page of Chapter 3 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 4 Earthquake disaster simulation of typical supertall buildings

Example page of Chapter 4 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 5 Simplified models for earthquake disaster simulation of supertall buildings

Example page of Chapter 5 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 6 Engineering application of earthquake disaster simulation of supertall buildings

Example page of Chapter 6 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 7 Comparison of seismic design and performance of tall buildings based on Chinese and US design codes

Example page of Chapter 7 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 8 Nonlinear MDOF models for earthquake disaster simulation of urban buildings

Example page of Chapter 8 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 9 Visualization for earthquake disaster simulation of urban buildings

Example page of Chapter 9 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 10 High performance computing for earthquake disaster simulation of urban buildings

Example page of Chapter 10 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 11 Earthquake disaster simulation of typical urban areas

Example page of Chapter 11 (Preview Pages of this Book)

Chapter 12 Earthquake loss prediction for typical urban areas

Example page of Chapter 12 (Preview Pages of this Book)

13 Conclusions

13.1 Major achievements and contributions

This monograph systematically introduced the technologies developed by the authors for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings and urban areas, with particular emphasize on collapse prevention and mitigation in extreme earthquakes, earthquake loss evaluation and seismic resilience.

Chapters 2 to 7 present the earthquake disaster simulation techniques for tall buildings, including the proposed high-fidelity computational models and simplified models of tall buildings, high-performance GPU-based matrix solvers, physics engine-based high performance visualization, and some typical engineering applications. Seismic safety and resilience of supertall buildings are new challenges to the earthquake engineering community. Therefore, many critical yet unknown problems are encountered by researchers and professional engineers, particularly on their seismic performances, collapse modes and the corresponding design strategies. The high-fidelity computational model proposed in this work using fiber-beam elements and multi-layer shell elements provides an efficient and reliable approach to discover the possible collapse modes and potential weak portions of the supertall buildings. This approach has also been successfully used in the design of some real-world supertall buildings (e.g., the Z15 Tower). The outcomes of the collapse simulation helped to save tens of thousands of tons of concrete and steel, whilst achieving a better seismic performance and safety of the supertall buildings. It is worth mentioning that, such a high-fidelity computational model is the only feasible option to date for collapse simulation of supertall buildings that are higher than 500 m. In addition, the simplified models proposed are able to identify the nonlinear performance of supertall buildings subjected to different levels of earthquake hazards with remarkably reduced computational workload. Furthermore, the seismic performance and resilience of typical tall buildings designed using the Chinese and US design codes are evaluated and compared. All these developments and simulation outcomes are expected to provide important references for seismic design of tall buildings and future updating of relevant seismic design codes.

Chapters 8 to 12 describe the earthquake disaster simulation of urban areas, following many of the outcomes presented in the former chapters of this monograph (e.g., the simplified models of tall buildings, GPU-based high-performance computing and resilience assessment method). A novel solution for earthquake disaster simulation of urban areas, using the proposed nonlinear multiple degree-of-freedom (MDOF) model and time-history analysis (THA) is systematically proposed, covering the nonlinear MDOF building models, parameter determination method, high-performance computing and realistic visualization. The proposed earthquake disaster simulation technique delivers several unique advantages: Firstly, it can fully represent the characteristic features of individual buildings and ground motions. In consequence, it is more suitable for urban regions having many newly constructed buildings but with limited historic earthquake experience. Secondly, it can realistically display the earthquake scenarios, particularly the dynamic shaking of buildings subjected to an earthquake. Therefore, it is widely welcomed by the government and/or administration departments whose professional knowledge of earthquake engineering are lacking. Thirdly, the entire dynamic response on each story of every building can be predicted at any time period, which provides a solid foundation for the prediction of economic loss and secondary disasters of earthquakes. Given these advantages, the proposed earthquake disaster simulation technique has been successfully implemented in the seismic performance assessments and earthquake loss predictions of several central cities of China. The outcomes of the simulation as well as the feedback from the end users are encouraging, which confirms a promising application future of the proposed simulation technique.

13.2 A Future perspective

Reitherman (2012) pointed out that there are three grant challenges in earthquake engineering: “risk, inelasticity and dynamics”. Powered by the latest computational technology, some novel solutions for earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings and urban areas targeting these three challenges have been proposed. Note that the real-world problems are far more complicated than those discussed in this work. Therefore, much more in-depth studies into the problems faced by the scientific community are necessary to be conducted. To this end, recommendations for future research directions are given below:

(1) Uncertainty

In addition to the uncertainty of ground motions that has been discussed in this work through incremental dynamic analysis (IDA) using sufficient ground motion records, uncertainties in the design, analysis and construction of the buildings (including but not limited to the uncertainties in the design information, computational model and corresponding parameter values) can also influence the prediction outcomes (FEMA, 2009; Ellingwood & Kinali, 2009). Therefore, uncertainties in the earthquake disaster simulation of tall buildings and urban areas need to be systematically and thoroughly explored.

(2) Soil-structure interaction, city-site interaction and building-to-building interaction

The influence of the soil-structure interaction (SSI) on the seismic performance of a supertall building has been discussed in Section 4.2.4. However, the actual SSI behavior is far more complicated, especially when nonlinearity of soil is considered. The input ground motions adopted in this work are mostly generated or recorded from free fields, which may differ substantially from the actual ground motions in a dense city (i.e., city-site interaction) (Guidotti et al., 2012). In addition, neighborhood buildings may impact each other during an earthquake (i.e., building-to-building interaction), which may induce further damage. All these interaction behavior requires more attention for advanced earthquake disaster simulation.

(3) Fire following earthquake and other secondary disasters

In addition to the direct damage of earthquakes, earthquake may also induce many secondary disasters. Fire following earthquake is one of the most severe secondary disasters of an earthquake for an urban area, which may incur an even greater loss than the earthquake itself (Lee et al., 2008). The earthquake scenario simulated in this work confirms the workability of the simulation of secondary disasters (e.g., simulating the falling debris as in Section 12.3). Further studies are required to develop a comprehensive earthquake disaster simulation methodology, taking into account various secondary disasters.

(4) Virtual reality, augmented reality and cloud computing

The visualization work presented in Chapter 9 can be further enhanced through virtual reality and augmented reality. The proposed high-fidelity models of visualization have established a solid foundation for the inclusion of virtual reality and augmented reality technologies into the scenario simulation of earthquake disasters. In addition, distributed computing technologies introduced in Section 10.3 can be further extended to cloud computing to make full use of the flexible capability of cloud computing platforms (Lu et al. 2015a). Note that the infrastructure as a service (IaaS) feature of cloud computing is particularly suited for earthquake disaster simulation: huge computational demand (due to a large number of buildings need to be simulated in a restricted time window) but occasional usage (due to low frequency of occurrence of strong earthquakes).

(5) Bridges, lifelines and other civil infrastructure

This study focuses on the earthquake disaster simulation of building structures. Many other civil infrastructure systems, such as bridges, electric and water lifelines are also critical for maintaining the functionality of a city. The simulation technologies proposed in this work provides useful information to guide future development of an integrated earthquake disaster simulation system for buildings and civil infrastructures.

ABAQUS, (2013). ABAQUS /CAE user's manual. Dassault Systèmes, Providence, RI, USA.

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